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The NBA playoff picture will come into clearer view each day between now and the end of the regular season Sunday. In the meantime, we will provide detailed daily updates on the landscape. During high winds at Friday's second round of the Masters, a tree fell in the gallery near the 17th hole. The transfer portal just got a big name. How Sam Bennett overcame tragedy to become one of the most fascinating players at the Masters.

The Padres star keeps making pitch-clock history. Here are the details on who makes the weekend at the Masters. Read full article. Marianne Guenot. Map shows Ukraine's 15 active nuclear reactors, including the 6-reactor complex just captured by Russia. An annotated image of a satellite image of the Zaporizhzhia power plant shows the training center that was struck by a projective on Friday. Story continues. Recommended Stories. In spite of experience acquired at from the smaller SRE, Atomics International still knew they needed to build much of the equipment at the larger scale in order to shake down the scaled-up designs.

For example, they built an entire mockup fuel handling facility and a full-scale fuel handling machine and operated it at temperature, in sodium! This allowed them to fix scaling design issues as well as to practice the various fuel handling activities that would be required in the operation of the plant. The Hallam facility was built relatively quickly but struggled with reactor problems during the shakedown period. After many repairs and lessons, the issue of rupturing moderator cladding and subsequent over-expansion and closing-off of coolant channels was the final straw.

Today, the fossil side of the plant still operates, and if you look at a satellite view you can see the perfect outline of the nuclear part partially entombed in beautifully cut grass, which is actually part of the containment. You can also see a big coal train right outside…. Interesting thought Since Hallam operated, vast amounts of experience have been gained in sodium-cooled fast-neutron reactors. Monju, SuperPhénix has not been positive. The second solicitation for the PDRP specifically sought small reactors. The Piqua proposal fit the bill, at just It featured organic coolant and moderator made of terphenyl isomers hydrocarbons. It was supposed that organic coolant would lead to low capital costs. The low vapor pressure of the coolant allowed low-pressure operation at high temperatures, reducing the weight and bulk of the pressure vessel while increasing the thermal efficiency.

Organic coolant also has low corrosion, allowing conventional materials like carbon and low-alloy steel to be used rather than stainless steel in the pressure vessel, pumps, pipes, etc. Lastly, induced radioactivity in pure organic liquids is very low, unlike in the liquid metals. The price to pay for the benefits of organic coolant comes in the form of decomposition cleanup and purification systems. Radiation and heat both cause the fluid to break down into water vapor, hydrogen, methane, and other hydrocarbons.

Also, the heat transfer characteristics are generally worse than for water, requiring high surface area fuel element design. This established the basic feasibility of organic-cooled reactors, and allowed AI to build experience in the system. The OMRE established the organic-cooled concept sufficiently to motivate the Piqua team to submit a proposal for a commercial plant. The business plan for Piqua was that the AEC would own and operate the plant for 5 years, selling steam to the city for the same price of conventional fossil-fueled steam.

After 5 years, the city would have an option to purchase the plant from the AEC. Piqua was brought to criticality on June, , and reached full power in January In , two control rods were found to not move freely in their guide tubes, and four fuel elements required abnormally high forces to unseat and would not reseat. The obstruction was found to be a carbonaceous deposit. Fuel was shipped to Atomics International for hot cell examination, where a hard continuous film was found on the surface, patches of film were found on the tips of the cladding film, and the inner moderator space was found to be full of carbonaceous material. As the rehab was ongoing, it became clear that Milton Shaw, the director of Reactor Development at the AEC, had given up on the organic concept:.

There is an expression used around our office about reactor projects. It is not those that have the slow death that worries us; it is those that have a life after death. He concluded that the AEC would support the Piqua facility but would otherwise discontinue all work on the organic cooled concept. The writing was on the wall. The Commission is in the process of terminating the operating contract for the Piqua reactor project. Several factors entered into this decision including: an increasing need for available resources manpower and funding by higher priority programs; little programmatic interest since support for organic cooled and moderated reactors and the HWOCR concept has been phased out; the technical problems which continue to delay reoperation of the plant and the unlikelihood of the City to purchase the plant.

A minute video explains Piqua in some detail. Fate of molten salt Notably, Milton Shaw is much derided for focusing all reactor development efforts on the fast breeder program around this time. Apparently, the organic reactors and molten salt reactors are brethren in this. Take note that the AEC contractor, Atomics International designed and built those last two wildly innovative reactors.

They had a process:. As part of the PDRP, the nuclear industry embarked on a significant research program into the concept of direct nuclear superheat reactors, or steam-cooled reactors. These had a boiler region in the core where water is boiled, and then the resulting steam is passed through the reactor or in some cases, a separate reactor a second time in a superheating core region typically with a much different cooling channel design. As mentioned, some previous reactors used fossil plants to do the superheating before going to the turbine.

This direct nuclear superheat concept would have eliminated that need. The key technical challenges for nuclear superheat has been reliable fuel elements at high temperature, considering burnup, corrosion, and erosion. Nuclear superheat reactors mostly operated pathetically due to high-temperature complications corrosion, erosion. Nothing has been done on them since the s except maybe in Russia. Some say the concept of direct superheat reactors is definitively dead due to these negative experiences.

However, advances in materials since then may eventually warrant another look. The entire reactor was inside the dome including the control room. Most of it has been grouted in place and entombed. Read more from Will Davis here. Gas coolant is generally transparent to neutrons and can reach very high temperatures, but has generally poor heat transfer characteristics must be held and pumped at high pressure. Converting heat to electricity with a gas-cooled reactor requires fuels that can handle very high temperatures. Gasses that have been used to cool reactors include air bad idea when graphite is involved because of potential fires, as learned at Windscale , helium relatively expensive , CO 2 , hydrogen, and nitrogen.

Some studies were made to understand the options to convert this reactor concept for merchant marine power called the A. The HTRE-3 at one point was on automatic control and automatically withdrew a control rod due to a faulty flux sensor, causing a power excursion and meltdown. In , they directed the AEC to build such a plant. Ferguson and Kaiser Engineering, neither of whom had experience with this kind of reactor.

TVA would own and operate the plant. ORNL was assigned as the technical advisor. A huge experimental loop was added to the Oak Ridge Research Reactor that contained high-pressure helium. They designed and tested the fuel, blowers, valves, and controls. Because the idea came from the top, the development team had very little emotional commitment to the EGCR. Costs skyrocketed when the plant was half-finished. Its cancellation was announced in the AEC Annual report to focus resources on reactors considered likely to deliver economic power.

It has also been said that graphite development was progressing sufficiently that the development of beryllium moderator was not considered necessary. The High Temperature Marine Propulsion Reactor was a low-power critical experiment that operated at the NRTS with intent to develop a marine propulsion gas-cooled reactor, but shut down in They all used gaseous hydrogen propellant. At this time, Westinghouse had something called the Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory. Related, some critical experiments for the nuclear ramjet Project Pluto were tested at the Nevada Test Site around December, It was a promising concept, but yet again, along came Milton Shaw and pulled funding from it to divert it to cover the over-budget liquid-metal fast breeder reactor project.

Helium coolant entered on the axis and exited through radial holes drilled between the axis and the periphery. It featured uranium and thorium carbides dispersed in a graphite matrix, contained in graphite cladding sleeves. Construction was completed in late Peach Bottom begot Fort St. Vrain FSV in Colorado, with detailed design beginning in PB used electrical circulators and multi-pass steam generators, while FSV used steam-driven circulators and once-through steam generators.

A full-scale prototype steam-driven helium circulator was tested in as well. The heavy-water coolant traveled through U-tube pressure tubes to headers on one side of the core. Stagnant heavy-water baffles inside the pressure tubes prevented heat from escaping to the cold heavy-water moderator tank i. It used low-enriched UO 2 fuel and had Zircaloy pressure tubes. It went critical in March, The hope of the CVTR reactor was to reduce fuel-cycle costs by enabling fueling with natural uranium. Though the CVTR itself needed enrichment due to its small size, the excellent moderation properties of heavy water would allow reduced enrichment operation, and no enrichment for large versions of the plant. Notably, the charter of the project explicitly said that it should target natural uranium fuel only in the event that this turns out to be the cheapest option as the design evolves.

Interesting control mechanisms were considered for CVTR, including shim control by adjusting the moderator temperature, or chemical shim in the moderator. The utility group was located where coal was cheapest, so they spent over a year studying reactor concepts to choose the one with the most potential to produce economic power. They sought low fuel cost, no limit in unit capacity, and high thermal efficiency. This reactor concept could run on natural uranium. A heat transfer loop was built and operated to test the pressurized CO 2 coolant with electrical heating and instrumentation. Two high-temperature corrosion loops were built. Test plans for tube liners, bellows, seal joints, fluid flow, tube seals, burst tests, and an in-pile loop test were all planned.

The project targeted thermal efficiency and neutron economy, combining the phenomenal low-pressure coolant properties of sodium metal with the phenomenal neutron moderation properties of heavy water. The key challenge, of course, was sodium-water isolation. NDA ran some significant component and reactor mock-up experiments and flow-loops with water and sodium.

This reactor proved the physical viability of the concept of breeding, or generating more fissile material than you consume. EBR-1 succeeded in its mission and is now a phenomenal museum near Arco, Idaho. A much larger reactor of this type, the EBR-II, was authorized under the 5-year plan, originally set to be complete in but delayed until This plant was built with many delays but did operate. It suffered a partial melt-down and was refurbished and operated again, always with numerous operational problems.

It is likely that sodium technology was not at the demonstration stage when Fermi was proposed, and its mediocre operation was the result. Other non-breeders would be deprioritized. This was a fateful moment for nuclear development. The technical study areas were defined and systematically pushed forward: fuels and materials, reprocessing and recycling, physics, nuclear safety, sodium technology, component development, instrumentation and control, and plant design.

Facilities and irradiation capabilities were ramped up to develop stainless, nickel-base, and refractory alloys for LMFBR environments. Neutrons emerge from a splitting nucleus at about 10, miles per second. They are generally slowed down to a few miles per second by a moderator to minimize the amount of fissile fuel required. Once slowed down, they are called thermal neutrons indicating that they are at equilibrium with the thermal agitation of the atoms or molecules at the temperature of the materials in the reactor. They require more fissile material like U to achieve a chain reaction, but in return generate far more excess neutrons, allowing for extra fertile material to be loaded for efficient breeding.

The industrial designers and fabricators were tasked with very high standards, and had to perform positive verification of their performance in realistic proof-tests before components were installed in an expensive large plant. The Facility Table in the AEC LMFBR program enlisted the services of 4 fast reactors, 12 fast reactor loops, 3 thermal reactor loops, 5 pulsed reactors, 1 pulsed reactor loop, 14 hot cell facilities with plutonium capability, 13 hot cells for cladding, 44 non-nuclear sodium test facilities, 29 non-sodium hydraulic test facilities, 13 critical assemblies, 6 accelerators, 2 fuel processing pilot plants, and 1 fuel fabrication pilot plant. The task list in there is equally massive. This development program was absolutely gigantic.

The program developed very much technology but eventually was cancelled, first in the late s and then forever in the early s. France, Germany, Russia, Japan, India, and China have also performed fast-reactor development programs. As of early , only Russia has large SFRs producing commercial power. Another approach to economical nuclear power was the homogeneous reactor design, which uses flowing fluid that contains nuclear fuel.

Expected advantages included simplicity of construction, ease of chemical processing since the fuel is liquid already , and elimination of fuel fabrication. They would have made MWe compact reactors, likely to be used by the military for remote power. The Aircraft Reactor Experiment first molten salt reactor. Oak Ridge built the 1 MWt Homogeneous Reactor Experiment-1 HRE-1 , fueled with highly-enriched uranium as uranyl sulfate in an aqueous solution to prove that a power reactor of this type could operate in a stable manner. To breed with slow neutrons, you have to use the thorium fuel cycle.

It was anticipated that HRE-2 would be modified after initial operation to accommodate thorium oxide slurry runs. A flow-visualization loop. A Milling-Yellow solution is used, which exhibits an optical property called flow double refraction. This causes interference due to viscous stresses in moving liquid. Who needs CFD when you can do it analog with models! After the HRE-2 troubles, the concept of a homogeneous thorium-based thermal breeder evolved. By , the billion-dollar Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program had produced vast technical data on high-temperature molten salts that can dissolve uranium and thorium at sufficient concentrations to operate a reactor.

During the ANP, the 2. A follow-up demonstration reactor was planned the Molten Salt Breeder Reactor , but like the organic reactor before it, Milton Shaw effectively pulled the plug on the homogeneous reactor development as part of the effort to concentrate budget and resources on the fast-neutron breeder development. To this very day, many people lament the abandonment of this promising reactor technology. The molten-salt reactors have become most strongly associated with Thorium, which has attained almost mythological status among nuclear proponents. Many of the nuclear power startup companies today are focused on bringing MSR development back online. Fortunately, the ORNL MSR team wrote down exactly where they were and where to pick the effort back up , specifically hoping some future people would do so.

I always recommend new MSR companies read and understand that document in detail first e. I love reading and learning about past reactor developments. I desperately want to pick up in places where the USA left off and push forward in a modern context. An old-timer once whispered to me at a comically over-optimistic talk at a conference:. We must not fear the nuclear bus. Today, new economic struggles challenge the fleet. The major cost drivers of nuclear are now understood , and we know we must standardize designs and engage in serial production to proceed.

Their excellent, stable performance is the fundamental reason they came to dominance. Many major efforts in reactor development struggled and then failed due to unexpected technical challenges that arose not at the study, lab, or reactor experiment phases, but rather at the prototype stage or even after the first commercial reactor was operated. We see yet again what all the legendary nuclear icons have told us all along: in nuclear, he who is putting on his armor should not boast as he who is taking his off. Nuclear progress requires good and dedicated engineering, not an instant miracle-cure. Get your adrenaline repair with this fast-paced, bouncy recreation the place the stakes may be as excessive as you want, and the successful prospects are nearly countless.

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